Tilt table testing is used to diagnose the cause of unexplained fainting (syncope). The test helps to identify whether fainting is due to a condition called vasovagal syncope, which is…

1. Normal Physiological Response: When a person stands up, gravity causes blood to pool in the legs. The body must quickly adapt to maintain adequate blood flow to the brain…

The Valsalva Maneuver is a test used to evaluate autonomic function by measuring the cardiovascular system’s response to a forced exhalation against a closed airway. This maneuver helps assess the…

Heart Rate Variability (HRV) Analysis Heart Rate Variability (HRV) analysis measures the variations in time intervals between heartbeats, which reflect autonomic nervous system activity. Here’s how to perform HRV analysis…

Equipment Several different types of equipment can be used such as mercury strain gauge, laser Doppler, and continuous wave Doppler. PPG is commonly used; with an infra-red probe. Changes in…

In persons with diabetes, the diagnostic accuracy of clinical examination for the presence of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is low. Therefore, in any person with a foot ulcer, objective assessment…

First, apply the tuning fork on the patient’s wrist (or elbow or clavicle) to demonstrate what the sensation feels like. Ensure the patient cannot see whether or where the examiner…

First apply the monofilament on the patient’s hands (or elbow or forehead) to demonstrate what the sensation feels like. Test three different sites on both feet, selecting from those shown…